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In Russian, parts of speech are divided into independent and auxiliary. Each independent part of speech ( noun, verb, adjective, numeral, pronoun, adverb) has its own grammatical features. There are different grammatical features, such as: “time, number, case” and constants “gender, declension”. Independent words include nouns, adjectives, verbs, and so on. Functional ones include prepositions, conjunctions, and particles.
General grammatical features can be applied to different groups of words.
In modern Russian there are 6 cases:
| Russian name | Latin name | Characteristic question |
| Nominative | Nominative (Nominativus) | Who? What? |
| Genitive | Genitivus | Whom? What? |
| Dative | Dativus | To whom? Why? |
| Accusative | Accusativus | Whom? What? |
| Instrumental | Ablative (combines instrumental, locative and ablative) | By whom? How? |
| Prepositional | Prepositivus | About whom? About what? (And so on.) |
All forms have them except the infinitive, participle and gerund. Many scientists believe that gerunds and participles are not forms of the verb, but separate parts of speech and, accordingly, carry other grammatical features.
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Noun– a significant part of speech that expresses the grammatical meaning of objectivity in the inflectional categories of case and number and the non-inflectional categories of gender and animacy.
The concept of “subjectness” is more abstract than the concept of “subject”. Words " board», « window" and similar ones are called objects, they highlight the grammatical meaning of "objectivity". Words " insolence», « height"is called an abstract feature, the words " embroidery», « studying"is called an abstract action, the words " revolution», « coup" show events, words " storm», « rain"name natural phenomena, the words " minute», « year"name time periods, the words " teacher», « old man"name persons, words "cat", "dolphin" call animals; In all words of this type, the grammatical meaning of “objectivity” is highlighted, because you can ask them a question Who? or What?
In nouns, the inflectional category of case is distinguished. In inflected nouns this category is expressed by inflections ( birch treesA – I.p., birch treess – R.p., birch treese– D.p. etc.), for indeclinable nouns the meaning of the category is determined by the context ( there is meringue on the plate– I.p., treat meringues– TV.p., I love meringues– V.p.).
In nouns, the category of number is distinguished. Usually the opposition singular/plural is distinguished. ( table/tables, teacher/teachers), but there are nouns that are used only in the singular. (singularia tantum): silver, merchants, love, there are nouns that are used only in the plural. (pluralia tantum): perfume, sleigh, cream, yeast.
All nouns, except those that appear only in the plural. (pluralia tantum), belong to one of 3 genera: day– m.r., wife- woman of birth, window– s.r. This is a non-verbal category.
In nouns, the non-verbal category of animate/inanimate is distinguished. When defining this category, we pay attention to grammatical manifestation. If the form Vin.p. plural coincides with the form of R.p. plural, then the noun is animate ( I see girls(v.p.) = no girls(R.p.)), if the form Vin.p. plural coincides with the form of I.p. – inanimate ( I see desks(v.p.) = there are desks(I.p.)).
For nouns they are the richest. Most often they act as subject and object ( fluffysnow enveloped slenderate ), but can also be other members of the sentence: my grandfather washealer (nominal part of a compound nominal predicate), waveseas covered me(definition), the books are lyingon the table (circumstance).
The term itself indicates the connection between vocabulary and grammar. The lexical meanings of nouns and the resulting manifestations of grammatical categories make it possible to distinguish categories.
Lexico-grammatical categories (LGR)- these are subclasses of words that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of the word to express certain grammatical meanings. This means that the semantics of words has certain features that affect its grammatical characteristics. For example: if the semantic feature is “a specific object,” then it follows that the grammatical feature is singular. and many more h.; those. Most concrete nouns have singular forms. and many more h. (leaf - leaves, birch - birch).
The following LGRs are distinguished: proper/common nouns, personal/non-personal, concrete/abstract, collective, real.
Morphology as a grammatical study of words. Relationship between morphology and vocabulary and syntax. Lexical and grammatical in a word. The concept of word form.
Morphology as a grammatical study of words.
Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words. Following V.V. Vinogradov, morphology is often called "grammatical doctrine of the word."
Morphology examines a word in the totality of its forms, while studying not only the mechanism (patterns) of inflection, but also the nature of its participation in the organization of communicative units. For example, in morphology, on the one hand, it is determined how nouns change according to cases, and on the other hand, it is established which meanings in the Russian language can be expressed through this or that case. In other words, morphology studies both the forms of words and their semantics, which is usually called grammatical.
The grammatical properties of words studied by morphology are grammatical (morphological) meanings and formal means of their expression.
Grammatical properties of the word- this is 1) its part-verbal affiliation, 2) the ability to change in a certain way (to have a set of word forms) or to be unchangeable and 3) its grammatical meanings.
As a result, the morphology can be defined as follows: this is a section of grammar that describes parts of speech, their grammatical (morphological) forms and grammatical meanings. V.V. Vinogradov called this morphology the grammatical doctrine of the word.
Relationship between morphology and vocabulary and syntax:
Morphology, being one of the sections of grammar, is closely related to lexicology, word formation and syntax.
Attitude to vocabulary predetermined by the fact that, on the one hand, grammatical meanings and grammatical categories appear only in specific word forms, for example, the grammatical masculine gender can be represented as the gender of certain nouns (shore, pencil, horse), adjectives (red, kind, copper), verbs (read, spoke, blushed). On the other hand, morphological forms are a linguistic means of interpreting lexical semantics, which does not exist outside of this interpretation. Black, blacken, blackness name the same real feature, designated by a root morpheme -black-. But this morpheme itself is not a word. It becomes a word only when it is framed as an adjective, verb or noun.
The relationship between morphology and vocabulary is reciprocal. The lexical meaning of a word can influence both the formation of the lexeme and the implementation of certain grammatical meanings of morphological forms. For example, material nouns (milk, cream) in the Russian language usually do not change in number, the prepositional case of abstract nouns cannot have the meaning of place, verbs that name relations that are not characterized in time (to belong) are monospecific.
The connection between morphology and syntax is obvious. Morphology is often (and to some extent rightly) called the handmaiden of syntax, since the forms studied in morphology are intended to construct correct statements, and only in the structure of sentences do they realize the linguistic properties inherent in them.
The dependence of morphology on syntax is also evident when identifying parts of speech, especially when it comes to unchangeable lexemes.
Syntax often turns out to be a support in solving morphological problems, especially where the expression of grammatical meaning is duplicated in syntactic connections. Thus, on the basis of agreement, grammatical gender and grammatical number can be assigned to unchangeable nouns, just as through syntax such words are endowed with case meanings.
Lexical and grammatical in a word.
We are already familiar with 2 types of linguistic meanings: lexical and word-formative.
Lexical meaning is an individual meaning inherent in one word - a unit. There is no other word that has the same meaning in the language, because there are no absolute synonyms in the language. There will always be a component, a shade of meaning, or a shade of functioning that will be different.
Word-formation meaning - occupies an intermediate position between vocabulary and grammar, because with the help of word-formation means new lexical units appear (there was “house”, now “house” = 2 different words). And therefore word-formation meaning is not unique.
Word-formative meaning - the meaning is not unique, it is inherent in some group of words.
Now let's look at the grammatical meaning:
For example, let's take the word "house". But if we take the same nouns according to the school curriculum of the 2nd declension with a zero ending, then we will get a huge number of them (in im.p. singular m.p.). Hence:
1st sign of gr. value- is inherent in a whole class of words!
Let’s compare the words “boy” and “house”: both are masculine. Why is "boy" masculine? Based on biological characteristics. Why is “house” masculine? It happened. The conclusion follows from this: the grammatical meaning is not tied to the lexical from the point of view of “what the lexical expresses must express the grammatical.”
2nd sign of gr. value- abstractness, abstraction (from the lexical).
3rd sign of gr. value- (opened in the 60s of the 20th century) mandatory. This is the most important sign! Example: if we want to say that some action took place in the past, a person cannot help but use the verb in the past tense!!! He has no choice! A person has no choice in the use of grammatical meanings!
The concept of word form.
If we analyze a single word, it is just a word. But if we analyze a word in a specific text, this is word form.
A word form is a specific use of a word in a specific morphological form. That is, whenever we analyze text, sentences, or phrases, and take some form from there, it is called a word form.
Grammatical meaning and grammatical form.
Grammatical meanings (according to Ivanov) are meanings characterized by the following: they cover a whole class of words, they are abstract and abstract, and most importantly, they are obligatory!
Grammatical meaning (according to Kamynina)- this is an abstract meaning that is expressed by formal grammatical means or what is called the grammatical design (or grammatical form) of a word.
The grammatical design of a word involves its morphological forms, morphemic-word-formation structure, syntactic properties and syntactic connections. The grammatical meanings are not the same.
Grammatical meanings are often called additional to the lexical meanings of words. A.I. Smirnitsky showed well that this should not be done. Lexical and grammatical meanings are two different types of linguistic semantics.
Types of grammatical morphological meanings:
nominative grammatical morphological meaning.
This is a grammatical meaning that reflects extra-linguistic reality. That is, THIS IS IT IN NATURE! Not in language, but in nature!
Syntactic grammatical morphological meaning.
A meaning that does not reflect extra-linguistic reality. What are they needed for? These meanings are necessary to connect words.
Water- unit form The question arises: the noun “water” in the singular form. names an object equal to one piece? Impossible! It’s impossible to count water at all!
Then why is this needed? -A? Just so that we can agree: Big water has arrived in the Khabarovsk Territory.
Types of grammatical meanings:
comparative
mood
Varieties of grammatical meanings:
Basic or invariant meaning.
Private meaning.
Figurative meaning.
Basic or invariant meaning- meaning presented in its pure form, without context.
Example: Basic unit value is the meaning of unity. The main meaning of the present tense is the coincidence of action with the moment of speech.
Private value- meaning determined by context. That is, thanks to some environment of other words, a clear meaning appears in some syntactic position.
Example: fish breathe through gills.
Question: only one fish breathes like this, and the rest do not? In this context, the singular form expresses (in addition to the main one) also a particular meaning - collective. That is, any, every, every fish.
Figurative meaning- this is the meaning of using a grammatical form in the meaning of an antinomial. What does “in the sense of a counterterm” mean? Singular instead of plural. The present instead of the past.
Like the lexical, figurative gr. the meaning is also emotionally colored, stylistically marked, and this is the case when we have the opportunity to choose. We choose not because we have the right to choose, but because we want to decorate our speech in some way.
Example: They go to the theaters, and I sit with the child!
People were currently in the theater, not going to theaters. That is, plural instead of singular.
And such a form is always a stylistically marked form. The meaning is emotionally charged.
Grammatical form:
grammatical meaning is expressed by grammatical forms!
A grammatical form is a linguistic sign in which the grammatical meaning finds its regular expression.
Example: “house” - zero inflection - just a linguistic sign in which the meaning of gender, number, and case is regularly expressed.
“I’m writing” is a linguistic sign in which the meaning of the indicative mood, present tense, 1st person, singular is regularly expressed.
That is, a grammatical form is a typified language device.
Ways and means of expressing grammatical meanings:
Method 1 - synthetic.
Morphological grammatical meaning is expressed using formative affixes (all inflections and a small set of suffixes).
Method 2 - analytical.
With this method, the expression of grammatical meaning is not expressed by affixes, but in some other way. How? There are 2 types of analytical way of expressing grammatical meaning:
1 type of analyticism - auxiliary words.
We observe them in the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives (more interesting, most interesting). Of course, there is analyticism in expressing the meaning of the subjunctive (according to the school curriculum - conditional) mood (would walk, write). Of course, analyticism is observed when expressing the imperative mood: let, let, come on, yeah etc.
Let them write
Let's sing
Type 2 of analyticism is related to the fact that grammatical morphological meaning is expressed by syntactic means. That is, it is an analytical syntactic grammatical meaning.
grandmother was sleeping - this ending does not express gender (grandfather, bully).
but: grandpa was sleeping
grandma is sleeping
How is the grammatical meaning of gender expressed in the words “grandmother” and “grandfather”? None.
In a sentence without a hint, it is impossible to understand how gender is expressed.
In the sentence “Grandma is sleeping,” the morphological meaning of the gender is not expressed. In the sentence “Grandma was sleeping,” the feminine morphological meaning of the word form “grandmother” is expressed by a syntactic means - the coordinated form of the feminine past tense verb.
Method 3 - supletivism of the basics.
Supletivism is when the grammatical meaning is expressed by another stem.
Person people
children
There are only 3 ways to express grammatical meaning in Russian!
Paradigm and paradigmatics:
A paradigm is a complete set of word forms of a single word (all forms of one word).
There are paradigms:
typical
private
Typical: include all morphological forms of the word.
Particulars: combine forms based on the same grammatical meaning:
- time paradigm
- inclination paradigm
- view paradigm
- complete paradigms
- defective paradigms
- abundant paradigms
Paradigmatics (Explanatory Dictionary) is a consideration of language units as a set of structural units connected by relations of opposition, but comparable with each other, including them in “vertical” rows - columns (case forms of one inflected word or finite forms of one verb, the same root in different affixal environments, a series of positionally alternating sounds)
In this article we will talk about such a part of speech as a noun. More specifically, we will talk about what grammatical features of a noun are, what part of speech it is, and what is generally characteristic of it. Let's talk about how morphological analysis of nouns is carried out, what cases they have, how to determine the declension of nouns. Of course, for each point we will give relevant examples that will help you understand the material.
A noun is a part of speech that answers questions about a subject - “Who?” So what?". The grammatical features of a noun include characteristic questions.
Let's make a small note right away. A noun as a part of speech can be divided according to several criteria. It can be animate (people, animals, and so on) and inanimate (flowers, trees, and so on). In addition, nouns are divided into proper nouns (names of people, names of animals, names of cities and other similar objects, rivers, mountains) and common nouns (words we use in everyday life, names of objects: mug, spoon, and so on). After all, nouns are divided into three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. They have corresponding endings, but this will be discussed a little later.
A noun as a part of speech can be changed by case. However, you cannot change the same word by gender. Changes in numbers are also possible: a noun can be singular, or it can be plural.
The grammatical features of a noun include several parameters. These include case and number. But according to these criteria, you can create the initial form of a noun. To do this, the word must be placed in the singular and also in the nominative case. That is, the initial form of a noun can be considered the words: bird, spoon, bed, and so on. All of them satisfy the requirements for the initial form of a noun.
As mentioned earlier, a noun answers the questions “Who?” So what". In most cases, subjects and objects are expressed by a noun in sentences. Of course, they can also be expressed by other parts of speech, but the noun accounts for the largest number of cases. An option with a definition that is not isolated is also possible. It is possible that a circumstance will also be expressed by a noun.
The grammatical features of a noun include division into proper and common nouns. Proper nouns are basically names of persons. As a rule, these are single items. What can be classified as proper nouns? Of course, first names, patronymics, last names of people, names of pets, etc. This also applies to geographical objects. For example, Krasnodar region, Mount Everest, Volga River. This list contains various astronomical names, for example, the names of stars and constellations, planets (Sun, Neptune, and so on). The list of proper names ends with the names of companies, works of art and culture, names of magazines and newspapers, transport models, and so on.
Moving on to common nouns, we note that they can be obtained from proper nouns by replacing them with synonyms. In addition, examples can be given from physics when the name of a scientist became a unit of measurement (in this case, it is written with a small letter).
The grammatical features of a noun include a number of criteria. These factors are also on their list. Animate nouns denote living beings, that is, they are applied to people, animals, and so on. Everything else - nature, plants, rivers, seas, planets - are inanimate nouns. These also include items that we use in everyday life: dishes, clothes, etc.
As we said earlier, a noun answers the questions “Who” and “What?”. The first question applies to animate nouns, the second, on the contrary, to inanimate nouns.
If only one subject is spoken about, then the forms of the noun assume a singular number. This is, in principle, logical. If it is said about several objects at once, for example, that there were “blue, white, red balls,” then in this case the plural of the noun “balls” is spoken of.
There are cases when the forms of a noun suggest the use of the word in only one number. That is, it can only be singular or only plural, and nothing else.
Examples include the so-called collective nouns. They can only have a singular form: children, humanity. In addition, the list of similar nouns includes objects that have a material meaning, such as iron, platinum, asphalt, steel, milk and others. In the singular, signs and states are used: anger, joy, hatred, youth, darkness, burning, fulfillment. There are also exception words that are used only in the singular.
The names of paired items, such as shorts and trousers, pants and glasses, are considered plural. Materials and residues also refer to the plural: sawdust, pasta, yeast, cream. The names of games, such as blind man's buff, hide and seek, and periods of time - vacations, days - also cannot be used in the singular. The list of nouns that are used only in the plural is completed by states of nature, exceptions to geographical names and names of actions: frost, troubles, negotiations, Athens, Sokolniki, Alps mountains.
The endings of nouns depend on which case the word is in. There are 6 cases in total.
The first question of each case is asked to the animate noun. The second, therefore, is inanimate. You can determine the case of a noun by asking a question. To do this, first look for the word with which the required noun is associated, and then ask the corresponding question.
The endings of nouns also depend on case, but not only on it. Along with number and case, gender is another factor on which they depend. In general, in some way it itself consists of separate criteria. This factor is the declension of nouns.”
You can decline a noun by changing its cases. There are three declensions in the Russian language. The first includes nouns belonging to the feminine gender. They must be singular and end in -a or -ya. This also includes masculine nouns that denote people. They have the same endings.
The second declension includes in its list nouns belonging to the masculine gender, as well as the neuter gender. In this case, masculine nouns must end in -о, -е or have a zero ending. Neuter nouns in the nominative case must also end in -о and -е.
The third declension contains feminine nouns. They have a zero ending when placed in the singular and nominative case.
In the Russian language there are nouns that are called indeclinable. These are ten neuter nouns (burden, time, seed, crown, flame, stirrup, banner, tribe, name, udder). Also included here is the noun “path”. In certain cases (namely, dative, prepositional), these words have endings that are characteristic of third declension nouns. But if you put them in the instrumental case, they will take the endings of the second declension.
If, when placed in all cases, a noun has only the same ending, then it is an indeclinable noun. Examples: radio, coffee, jury, Sochi.
The first point in morphological analysis is to establish the part of speech. The second part includes the indication of morphological characteristics. This is placing a word in its initial form, indicating such constant features as a proper name or a common noun, animate or inanimate, indicating the gender of the noun, its declension. The next sub-item for indicating morphological characteristics is variable characteristics. This is the case and number of the word. Well, morphological analysis consists of indicating the syntactic role of the word.
The presence of almost all the analyzed criteria that determine this part of speech is characteristic of many languages, one of which is ours, Russian. The noun occupies a very important place in it and plays a big role.
Parts of speech have grammatical features that distinguish them from each other. Grammatical features can be constant or unstable. Let's look at the grammatical features of all parts of speech with explanations and examples.
For reference. The concepts of “grammatical features” and “morphological features” can be considered synonyms. Typically, the phrase “morphological features” is used in elementary and middle grades, and the phrase “grammatical features” in high school.
Words have constant characteristics: category, gender category, type of declension, etc.
The gender category covers all nouns, both indeclinable and indeclinable. Gender is not determined for nouns that only have a plural form. Past tense verbs, some pronouns similar to adjectives, ordinal numbers and participles have a gender category. For adjectives, the category of gender is not constant, it is determined only in singular parts.
Declension is the change of words by case. Only nouns have three types of declension. Each type is distinguished by case endings in a singular case.
For reference. 1st cl.: feminine and masculine nouns with endings -а, -я; 2nd script: masculine with zero ending and neuter with -o, -e; 3 syllables: feminine with zero ending, ending in -ь.
Concepts proper or common nouns, animate or inanimate are defined only for nouns.
Rank qualitative, relative and possessive have adjectives.
For reference. Qualitative adj. may exhibit the trait to a greater or lesser extent: lighter, lighter; relative adj. indicate signs through their relationship to the material, place, etc.: iron, children's; possessive adj. They indicate belonging to something: fathers, wolves. Quantitative or ordinal digits have numerals. Numerals, prepositions and conjunctions are simple and compound.
Pronouns have nine categories: personal, relative, indefinite, attributive, relative, negative, possessive, demonstrative and reflexive “self”.
For reference. Personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, you, we, they; return(self); interrogative (who, what, which, whose, which, how many, what); relative (the same interrogative); indefinite (someone, something, some, several, some, someone, anyone, anyone, some, some, some, some, how much); negative (nobody, nothing, no one's, none, no one, nothing); possessive (my, yours, ours, yours, yours, his, hers, theirs); demonstrative (that, this, such, such, so much); definitive (all, everyone, himself, each, most, any, other, other).
Prepositions are divided into derivatives and non-derivatives, unions - on subordinating and coordinating.
Participles are divided into active and passive.
For reference. The active participles of the present tense have the suffixes: -ash-(-yush-), -ush-(-yush-), past: -vsh-(-sh-); passive participles of the present tense: -eat-(-om-), (-im-), past participles –nn-, -enn- (-yonn-), -t-.
For reference. 1st person: I, we; 2nd person: you, you; 3rd person: he, she, it, they.
View perfect or imperfect have verbs, participles and gerunds.
For reference. The perfect form answers the question: what to do? What did you do?; imperfect: what to do? what did you do?
Transitivity, conjugation, mood have only verbs.
For reference. Transitive verbs are combined with a noun or pronoun in the accusative case without a preposition: invite a guest. Conjugation is the change of verbs according to persons and numbers, distinguished between I sp. with endings -em, -ete, -ut(-yut) and II sp.: -im, -ite, -at(-yat). Do not forget about exceptions. In the indicative mood, verbs change tenses. In conditional, they denote actions that would occur under certain conditions. In the imperative, they encourage action.
Tense is determined for verbs and participles.
Reflexivity is found in verbs and gerunds.
For reference. Reflexive verbs and gerunds have the suffixes -sya-, -s-.
The category of number is one of the most important grammatical features; it indicates the number of objects. Covers almost all nouns, adjectives, participles, verbs, some pronouns. The category of number is formed by the singular and plural, which indicates the number of objects: units. hours – for one subject, plural. hours - two or more.
Case category- a grammatical feature that covers all inflected nouns, adjectives, some numerals, pronouns, participles in full form. The case category is expressed using case endings of all forms of the word.
For reference. Nominative clause (Who? What?), Genitive clause (Whom? What?), Dative clause (Whom? What?), Accusative clause (Whom? What?), Instrumental clause (Whom? What?), Prepositional clause . (About who about what?).
For reference. There are comparative simple degrees: lower, hotter; comparative compound: more (less) hard; excellent simple: strictest, best; excellent compound: the most (most, least) accessible, best of all.
Short or long form have adjectives and passive participles.
Abbreviations are often used in morphological analysis:
- shower and inanimate. (animate and inanimate),
- nar. and own (common noun and proper noun),
- numbers: singular, plural. (singular, plural),
- faces: 1 l., 2 l., 3 l. (first, second and third person),
- gender: female, male, middle, general. (feminine, masculine, neuter, common gender),
- declination: 1 l., 2 l., 3 l., heterogeneity. (first, second, third person, indeclinable),
- cases: i.p., r.p., d.p., v.p., t.p., p.p. (or name, gen.p., dat.p., vin.p., tv.p., etc.).
