He ordered to build fortifications to defend against them, and they fled from the shine of his formidable name, like from lightning. But in sadness over the increasing insolence of the northern sea robbers, he said prophetic words: “With grief I foresee how much harm they will do to my successors and their subjects.”
The great emperor died, and his successors quarreled over the division of the inheritance, the peoples of his state broke the state connection that united them, the mighty army was fragmented, the nobles were divided into hostile parties, and civil strife began, absorbing all the strength and all the attention of the Franks and their sovereigns. Then the northern Germans, who ruled the sea, in whom the repressed paganism showed all its energy, freely began to go out onto the land along the entire length of the shores of the Frankish state, from the mouth of the Elbe to the mouth of the Garonne, and began to ferociously devastate the regions of the frustrated, collapsing empire, without meeting anywhere with unanimous resistance.
Viking campaigns. Map
The attacks of the "northern people", the Nordmanns, or, in a softer French accent, the Normans, on the West Frankish state (future France), form two periods: the first storm began at the end of the reign Louis the Pious and raged for almost thirty years under the weak reign of Charles the Bald. The second, even more terrible, ended with the settlement of the Normans on French soil and the founding of a duchy called Normandy.
In 841, per year Battle of Fontenoy, Viking ships entered the Seine and Loire; their hordes destroyed Rouen and Amboise and besieged Tours. The inhabitants of Tours, in fear of death, brought the relics of Saint Martin to the city wall. The sight of this shrine inspired new courage in the defenders of the city, and Tur was saved by the miraculous power of his patron. The Vikings, returning home, said that in the land of the Franks the dead were more terrible than the living. The leaders of the invasion, which was stronger and more fatal than others and befell France in the middle of the 9th century, were, as they say, Bjorn Jernsida (Ironside), the son of Ragnar Lothbrok, and Bjorn's tutor, the terrible Hasting. French chroniclers call Bjorn “the king of the troops and the culprit of all devastation”, comparing the horde of Vikings with a devastating stream that rushed down to France from the northern cliffs; Especially Hasting acquired a terrible celebrity in the French chronicles for the fury with which he acted villainously, devastating everything in his path. The Vikings took Nantes, killed the bishop in the church near the throne, massacred the inhabitants and set the city on fire. Then they entered the Garonne, plundered Bordeaux, reached Toulouse, and approached it several times. At Tarbes they were defeated, but in 845 they appeared again in southwestern France, defeated the army of Charles the Bald, took Bordeaux a second time and remained to live there. One of the bravest warriors of the Aquitanian people they exterminated, Count Turpion of Angoulême, fell under their swords (in 863). More successful was the battle given to them eleven years before (in 852) at Brilliac by Ramnulf, Count of Poitou.
Normans. People from the north. BBC film
At the mouth of the Loire, in 843, they founded a fortification on the island of Noirmoutier, settled there and sailed, walked from there into the interior of the country, robbed Tours, Blois, Orleans, Nantes, devastated Quentovich (in Picardy), which at that time was one of the richest port cities of the Frankish states. They settled at the mouth of the Seine from 841, in a fortification on the island of Oussel; three times - in 846, in 857 and in 861 - they took Paris. In 852, the leaders of the Normans on the Seine were Godfrey, son of Harald, and another sea king, Cydroc. Karl the Bald and LothairI they stood against them at the Givoldsky ditch; but the matter ended, as usual, with the kings giving them money to leave. Gottfried appears some time later - still under Charles the Bald - in Friesland. Sidrok remained at the mouth of the Seine. The leader of another horde of Normans on the Seine was Oscar (Kite Vulture, in the current German form of the word Aasgeier); Rouen was destroyed by him in 841; in 848 he destroyed Bordeaux.
In 859, the Normans sailed up the Rhone, the only one of the large French rivers that had not yet carried their ships, devastated the land on both banks, plundered Nîmes and Arles; their troops took Chartres and Poitiers; the ruins of monasteries smoked along their path. In vain did the people gather to fight them, in vain did Charles the Bald lead an army against them; If it was possible to remove one detachment of them with weapons or ransom, other detachments appeared in its place to plunder the unfortunate country, moving further and further into its depths. Karl the Bald with the help of his nephew LothairII in 858 he drove Sidrok and Bjorn into their fortification on the island of Wassell, blockading them there for several months; but his brother Ludwig the German, invited by some of Charles's chief vassals, went to take the state from him; he had to abandon the blockade and go repel Ludwig. Bjorn Ironside with part of the Normans left, probably taking money for it, and it seems he was killed during the attack on Friesland.
To get rid of the other Normans remaining in France, Charles took a desperate remedy: he hired a new enemy to fight these enemies, the sea king Weland, who appeared at the Somme in 861, offered him 3,000 pounds of silver, established a heavy tax to collect this amount; While they were collecting money, Weland sailed to England, plundered Winchester, returned, entered the Seine, demanded an increase in payment to 5,000 pounds, and began a siege of the Normans remaining on Oussel. The besieged, seeing that they could not defeat the besiegers, gave them more than the king had promised. Having taken 6,000 pounds from the besieged, the besiegers united with them, and together they began to negotiate with the king. Weland was killed by some of his companions; Having taken a ransom from Charles, the Normans sailed away, taking with them countless booty.
Charles convened a Diet to establish good defense measures against the Normans. The Diet met in 863 in Pitres (on the Seine), where the Normans who had now sailed were fortified. A decree was issued on the structure of defense, the so-called Edict of Pitrus; but no good defense was arranged. The Vikings remained on the Loire, plundered the land along this river, and destroyed Orleans. Hugues, abbot of the Tours monastery of St. Martina and Count Gosfried tried to protect the country from these Loire Normans, but could not defeat them. The Vikings appeared on the Garonne and began to plunder the areas along its banks again. Vikings also appeared on the Seine; Charles in 865 and 866 was forced to pay off them with large sums. The chronicle of that time says: bushes grew on the walls of destroyed cities and monasteries; the entire coastal region turned into a deserted desert; in the rest of the country, both northern and southern, few people survived. Even the middle of the state presented the same appearance; vineyards and orchards were destroyed; people fled; neither merchants nor pilgrims were visible along the roads, and the silence of death reigned over the fields.
Since 873, the Normans resumed their invasions of France, took Angers on the Loire, and it took Charles the Bald great efforts to drive them out of this fortified city. Soon after, civil strife began in Brittany; one of the parties called on the Normans to help them. Another large Viking fleet entered the Seine; Karl the Bald paid them off with a huge sum of money. After his death, kings in the Frankish states quickly changed; The kings had rivals, and internecine struggle engulfed all parts of the fragmented empire. This was favorable for the Vikings; they again began to invade in large numbers from the German Sea and the Ocean into Germany, the Netherlands, and France.
The starting point for the beginning of the Viking campaigns in Western Europe is considered to be 793. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that on June 8, the pagans attacked the monastery of St. Cuthberta on about. Lindisfarne is a small island on the east coast of England, near the English-Scottish border. These pagans were the Scandinavian Vikings; the monks died under the blows of their swords. The riches of one of the most famous and highly revered monasteries in England, the monastery of St. Cuthbert, became the prey of the Vikings. In the next decade they sacked many other monasteries, churches and towns along the coast from Ireland to Wales 81 .
793 is clearly imprinted in the minds of the English clergy as the year the Viking invasions began, because it was the year that one of Britain's most significant shrines was sacked for the first time. In fact, similar robber attacks were carried out several years earlier. Nevertheless, 793 can be considered as a certain milestone, because from the last decade of the 8th century. attacks by Scandinavian flotillas on lands from Lake Ladoga in the east to Ireland in the west become a widespread disaster (ill. 16). In the first decade of the 9th century. Viking flotillas are already attacking powerful feudal states, such as the Frankish Empire. In 810, the Danish king Gottrik, who two years earlier had plundered the Obodritic trading city of Rerik, broke through the Frankish coastal defenses with 200 ships and captured part of Friesland. The tribute he demanded was estimated at 200 pounds of silver 82 .
In the Baltic basin at the same time, the Scandinavians ("Rus" in Arabic sources and "Varyags" in the Russian "Tale of Bygone Years") 83 begin to move further into the continent. Judging by archaeological data, namely traces of direct settlement or particularly strong influence of the Normans, they were attracted by large rivers that crossed the entire country, along which the Vikings, or Varangians, came to the south. The “entry gates” to these lands were Lake Ladoga and the Volkhov in the northeast of the Baltic Sea. Along the river systems from Lake Ladoga it was possible to reach Beloozero, the center of the Finnish tribe Vse (modern Vepsians), where from the 10th century. Along with the influence of the East Slavic and Volga-Bulgar cultures, the influence of Baltic trade is felt. From Lake Ladoga along the Volkhov we got to the island. Ilmen to Novgorod. Along the river systems of the Lake Ladoga and Ilmen basins it was possible to reach the Upper Volga basin, and along the Volga to reach the Bulgar state with its capital the Great Bulgar. According to Arab authors, almost in the 7th century. “Rus” (in early sources the Varangians often appear under this name) fought with the Arabs, being in the service of the Khazars, whose power arose in the lower reaches of the Volga 84. Information about communication routes between the region. Mälaren on the Scandinavian Peninsula and the Middle Volga region apparently appeared in Central Sweden back in the Bronze Age (the first archaeological evidence of the existence of such connections dates back to this time) and then were passed on from generation to generation 85. In the IX-X centuries. The most significant complexes of finds containing Scandinavian material or depicting significant Scandinavian influence were discovered at archaeological sites near Staraya Ladoga, as well as in settlements and burial grounds near the villages of Timerevo, Mikhailovskoye and Petrovskoye near Yaroslavl on the Volga 86. The Volga route through the Caspian Sea led to the Arab countries of Central and Western Asia, and along the Lower Don to the Black Sea and Byzantium. These connections were so intense that some Arab geographers formed the idea that the Baltic and Black Seas were directly connected by a strait. According to one Khazar-Persian news that came to us through the “Ancient History of the Turks” from the era preceding the 9th century, the “Rus” came along the Volga route from the north, from a certain island located further than the Volga Bulgars and “Sakaliba” (which here means Finnish tribes) 87. Ibn Fadlan, who in 922 collected information about the “Rus” in Bulgar, according to some researchers, observed “Rus” on the Volga coming from the Scandinavian Baltic; regardless of the Arabic author, about “Rus” - Varangians from “overseas” (i.e. e. from the Baltic Sea), reports "The Tale of Bygone Years" 88. Another waterway intersected with the Volga Route on Lake Ladoga or later on Ilmen (ill. 17). Through the Ilmen basin, primarily along the Lovat, it was possible to reach the Western Dvina, including its southern tributaries, such as Kasplya. Through Kasplya, Kasplyanskoye Lake and a system of portages they reached the Dnieper in the Smolensk region (more precisely, at Gnezdov to the west of Smolensk) 89 . The same portages between the Dvina and the Dnieper were used by travelers moving from the Gulf of Riga along the Western Dvina into the interior of the country. In Gnezdovo, the ships were re-equipped and spent some time here before moving on. Therefore, in Gnezdovo no later than the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. A vast settlement arose in which representatives of the local, Upper Dnieper Baltic tribes, Slavs and Scandinavians lived. Craftsmen, traders, warriors, and peasants apparently had their own separate quarters within the vast settlement area, stretching between the Svinets and Olsha rivers, which flowed into the Dnieper. Gnezdovo also presents numerous finds of West Slavic origin (both ceramics and jewelry); It is quite possible that a group of traders or artisans who arrived from the Lower Oder also settled here. An accurate determination of the ethnic composition of the population, however, will become possible only when Gnezdov’s materials are systematically published 90 . Apparently, there was even a ship connection between the river systems of the Dnieper, Vistula and Oder using portages. Thus, in 1041, the Kiev prince Yaroslav made a boat trip from Kyiv along the Dnieper and Bug against the Mazovians on the Lower Vistula 91. A system of portages connected the Oder - Warta - Notets - Vistula.
They eventually reached the Black Sea along the Dnieper, and Byzantium by sea. Undoubtedly, on all these routes there were strongholds, such as Kyiv, Chernigov, Gnezdovo, Yaroslavl, Ladoga 92. "The Tale of Bygone Years" at the beginning of the 12th century. describes in great detail the circulation of trade routes on the Valdai Hills: “When the glades walked separately through these mountains, there was a path from the Varangians to the Greeks and from the Greeks along the Dnieper, and in the upper reaches of the Dnieper there was a portage to Lovot, and along Lovot you can enter Ilmen, a great lake; from the same lake Volkhov flows and flows into the great lake Nevo, and the mouth of that lake flows into the Varangian Sea. And along that sea you can sail to Rome, and from Rome you can sail along the same sea to Constantinople, and from Constantinople you can. sail to the Pontus Sea, into which the Dnieper River flows. The Dnieper flows from the Okovsky forest and flows to the south, and the Dvina flows from the same forest and heads north and flows into the Varangian Sea. From the same forest the Volga flows to the east and flows seventy. mouths into the Khvalisskoe Sea. So from Rus' you can sail along the Volga to the Bolgars and Khvalis and further east to the inheritance of Sima (i.e. the Urals. - I. X.), and along the Dvina to the land of the Varangians... "93. This route south through Eastern Europe was already known before the 9th century. 94, in the 9th-10th centuries. its importance increased sharply as a result of both the processes of internal development of these areas and the activities of Scandinavian newcomers and the rise of northern trade. Compared to the “Road from the Varangians to the Greeks,” the Volga Route was more ancient and therefore more important, especially at the early stage of the development of Baltic trade. But with the development of the transitions from the upper reaches of the Western Dvina to the upper reaches of the Dnieper, the creation of a system of boat portages, the Dvina-Dnieper route no later than the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. becomes of great importance 95.
Traces of the Scandinavian Pale turned out to be relatively weak in the interior regions of the eastern part of Central Europe, in Poland and the German Democratic Republic. A few finds indicate more or less sporadic use of the waterways along the Vistula and Oder. They reached the Middle and Lower Danube and the Balkans, that is, directly into the territory of Byzantium. The ancient "Amber Route", which in previous centuries connected the Roman Carnuntum, at the mouth of the Morava, through the Moravian Gate with the mouth of the Vistula, in this era did not play a significant role in communications between north and south.
The area between the Oder and the Elbe in the 9th-11th centuries. was subjected to numerous local invasions of the Vikings, whose routes passed along the rivers Pena, Varnov, Trava, as well as along branched inland reservoirs, bays and lake systems. A similar situation is developing on the southern coast of the North Sea, between the mouths of the Elbe and the Seine.
In Western Europe, the Frankish state successfully defended itself against the Vikings 96. Following the first Danish invasion of Friesland, shipbuilding began in 810 on the initiative of Charlemagne. At the mouths of large rivers, strongholds were built for military flotillas and coast guards were stationed. In 820 this coastguard repelled the largest Norman invasion of Flanders; Their attempt to break into the Seine also failed. Then the Vikings succeeded: the port of Rouen was sacked. However, the Normans were driven back by Frankish coastal defenses; they began to attack the British Isles. After the overthrow of Louis the Pious in 833, the struggle for the throne in the Frankish state and the general decline of the empire led to the neglect of coastal defense. The result was immediate: already in 834-838. The Vikings subjected Friesland to terrible devastation, which opened the long period of the Norman invasion of strife-ridden France, which took more than three quarters of a century.
Large commercial centers of the coast, such as Dorestad and Walcheren, were destroyed time after time; Cologne was under threat. On May 14, 841, the Normans recaptured Rouen and it was burned to the ground. The lands at the mouth of the Rhine fell into the hands of the Vikings. In 842 they defeated the largest of the harbors, Quentovic (future Calais). A year later Nantes fell, and Hamburg fell in 845. On Easter Sunday 845, Paris was captured and destroyed, and in 848 Bordeaux fell. The attacks continued in the following decades, along with the formation of permanent Norman possessions. Significant productive forces and cultural values were doomed to destruction, primarily in coastal areas and at the mouths of large rivers. The ruling class of Central and Western European states was unable to organize an effective defense. In the lands between the Seine and the Loire, according to Prudentius, the peasants eventually rose up against their dysfunctional nobility to organize their own resistance to the Viking invasions; At the same time, they mercilessly destroyed the nobles.
The Viking raids spread further and further. Around 860, a fleet led by Hasting invaded the Mediterranean Sea with the aim of plundering Rome. The Normans, little familiar with the geography of Italy, attacked the northern Italian city of Luna instead of Rome. The chronicler's message vividly reproduces the methodical actions of the Vikings: “When the Normans devastated all of France, Hasting proposed to move on Rome and this city, as before the whole of France, should be subjected to Norman rule. Everyone liked the proposal, the fleet raised the sails and left the coast of France. After numerous raids and the landing of the Normans, who sought to reach Rome itself, headed for the city of Lunke, also called Luna. The rulers of this city, although frightened by the unexpected, terrifying attack, quickly armed the townspeople, and Hasting saw that the city could not be taken by force of arms. Then he set off. he used a trick, namely: he sent an envoy to the burgrave and bishop of the city; having appeared before high-ranking officials, he said the following: “Hasting, Prince of Denmark, and all his people, expelled from Denmark along with him by fate, send you their greetings. It is well known to you that we, expelled by fate from Denmark, wandering on a stormy sea, finally arrived in the Frankish state. Fate gave us this country, we invaded and in many battles with the Frankish people, we subjugated all the lands of the state to our prince. After its complete conquest, we wanted to return to our homeland; and at first it carried us straight to the north, but then the nasty western and southern winds exhausted us, and so, not of our own free will, but in dire need, we found ourselves on your shore. We ask, give us peace so that we can buy food. Our leader is sick, tormented by suffering, he wants to receive baptism from you and become a Christian; and if he accomplishes this in his bodily weakness before death, he prays to your mercy and piety for burial in the city." To which the bishop and count responded: "We conclude eternal peace with you and baptize your leader into the faith of Christ. We also allow you, by free agreement between us and you, to buy whatever you want!" The envoy, however, uttered false words, and everything that he, full of deceit, found out, he conveyed to his master the villain Hasting.
So, they concluded a peace treaty and good trade and communication began between Christians and dishonest pagans.
Meanwhile, the bishop prepared the font, blessed the water, and ordered the candles to be lit. The fraudster Hasting appeared there, immersed himself in the water and received baptism to the destruction of his soul. Raised from the holy font by the bishop and the count, he was again carried to the ship as if seriously ill. There he immediately called his scoundrels and revealed to them the disgusting secret plan he had invented: “The next night you will inform the bishop and the count that I have died, and pray with tears that they would like to bury me, newly baptized, in their city; my swords and Promise to give them jewelry and everything that belonged to me.” No sooner said than done. Sobbing, the Normans rush to the lords of the city and say: “Our lord, your son, ah! is dead. We beg you, allow him to be buried in your monastery and accept the rich gifts that he ordered to give you before his death.” Deceived by these hypocritical words and blinded by the splendor of the gifts, they allowed the body to be buried in the monastery in a Christian manner. And the messengers returned to themselves and reported the success of their cunning. Hasting immediately ordered, full of joy, to gather the leaders of the various tribes (tribus) and said to them: “Now quickly make me a funeral bier, lay me on it, like a dead body, but with weapons, and stand around, like bearers around a hearse. The rest should raise a bitter cry and cry in the streets, in the camp and on the ships. Carry jewelry, armor, axes and swords trimmed with gold and precious stones for everyone to see in front of the hearse.” This order was followed by its exact execution. The cries and cries of the Normans were heard far away, while the ringing of the bells called the people to the church. The clergy arrived in festive attire, the city elders doomed to martyrdom, the women destined for slavery. In front came a choir of boys with candles and crosses, and behind them a stretcher with the wicked Hasting; Christians and Normans carried it from the city gates to the monastery, where the grave was prepared. And so the bishop began to celebrate the solemn mass, and the people reverently listened to the singing of the choir. Meanwhile, the pagans spread out everywhere, so much so that the Christians did not sense the deception. Finally the mass ended, and the bishop ordered the body to be lowered into the grave. Then the Normans suddenly rushed to the bier, furiously calling out to each other that he could not be buried! The Christians stood as if struck by thunder. And suddenly Hasting jumped off the stretcher, grabbed a sparkling sword from its sheath, rushed at the unfortunate bishop, clutching a liturgical book in his hands, and defeated him, as well as the count! The Normans quickly blocked the church gates, and then the horrific beating and extermination of unarmed Christians began. Then they rushed through the streets, killing everyone who tried to defend themselves. And the army from the ships also rushed through the wide open gates and intervened in the raging massacre. Finally the bloody work was completed, the baptized people were completely exterminated. Those who survived were dragged onto the ships in chains. Here Hasting and his men boasted and thought that he had plundered Rome, the capital of the world. He boasted that he now possessed the whole world, having taken the city, which he considered Rome, the ruler of the nations. However, when he found out that this was not Rome, he became furious and exclaimed: “Then plunder the entire province and burn the city; drag the booty and prisoners onto the ships! The people here must feel that we have visited their country!” So the entire province was defeated and devastated by fierce enemies with fire and sword. After this, the pagans loaded the ships with booty and prisoners and again turned the bows of their ships towards the power of the Franks" 97 .
In the Slavic lands of the southern Baltic, as well as on the Frankish coast, various defensive measures were carried out against attacks by the Vikings and other sea robbers; Sometimes these measures were successful, more often they were insufficient. The tribal aristocracy, as well as the princes of the emerging states, began building fortresses that would serve as protection against attacks from the sea. Such fortresses are concentrated in the lower reaches of Warnow, on Rügen, in the lower reaches of the Pene - the mouth of the Oder, near Kolobrzeg, on the Courland coast, in Latvia, in the Gulf of Riga, in Estonia and in the area of \u200b\u200bEast Slavic colonization around Pskov and Novgorod. Scandinavia also sought to protect itself from Viking attacks by using a coastal warning system, as we learn from one Upland inscription, and by building fortifications. It was at this time that apparently the largest of the circular fortifications in Sweden was erected - Graborg on Öland 98, as well as Eketorp on Öland, the layout of which we present thanks to the excavations of M. Stenberger 99 (ill. 18). The role of such fortresses and fortifications in the fight against Viking attacks is quite well known for the Frankish regions and, according to rather meager written data, for the Baltic region. Often local tribes managed to successfully defend themselves from attacks and withstand sieges.
Repeatedly, however, the fortifications were taken by storm, people were captured, tributed, sold or enslaved.
The Life of St. Ansgarius reports one Danish attack in the 40s. IX century: “It was their lot to go to a remote fortress of the land of the Slavs... Completely unexpectedly they fell upon the peaceful, carefree natives there, prevailed by force of arms and returned, enriched with plunder and many treasures, to their homeland...” 100
In a similar way, the Danes attacked the Curonian tribes. In 852, they “gathered a fleet and set off for robbery and plunder in Courland. There were five noble fortresses in this country, in which the population gathered at the news of the invasion in order to defend their property in a courageous defense. And this time they achieved victory: half of the Danish army was killed, as well as half of their ships were destroyed; gold, silver and rich booty went to them [the Curonians]." Next, a new attack by the Svei under the leadership of King Olav is reported. Seborg in Courland was sacked by the Swedes, and another fortress in the interior continued to resist. Then a peace agreement was concluded, the Swedes with a rich ransom and promises of tribute retired home 101.
So, for the Vikings, such attacks often resulted in heavy losses. If people from noble families died during campaigns, memorial stones with runic inscriptions were erected in their honor in their homeland. Thus, some messages have reached us about the places of residence of the Vikings - warriors and merchants. They died in the Balkans, in Byzantium, in Rus' and in other places. Some examples allow us to get an idea of this source on the early medieval history of Scandinavia:
“Eirik, and Hakon, and Ingvar, and Ragnhild, they... He died in Greece...” - says on a stone from Husby-Lyhundra in Upland (R 142; M 88).
“Tjagn, and Gautdjarv, and Sunnvat, and Thorolf, they ordered this stone to be installed for Toki, their father. He died in Greece...” (Angarn, Upland, R 116; M 98) 102.
“Thorgerd and Svein, they ordered a stone to be set up for Orm and Ormulf and Freygeir. He died isilu in the north, and they died in Greece...” (Vastra Ledinge, Upland, R 130; M 65).
“Rune ordered [this] monument to be made for Spjalbud, and for Svein, and for Andvet, and for Ragnar, his sons and Helga; and Sigrid for Spjalbud, her husband. He died in Holmgard (Novgorod. - I. X.) in Church of [St.] Olav. Epirus carved runes" (Syusta, Upland, R 131; M 89).
“Ingileiv ordered a stone to be placed for Bruni, her husband. He found death in Denmark in white robes (i.e. on his deathbed - I, X.). Bolli carved” (Amnö, Upland, R 132).
“Gudlaug ordered a stone to be erected for Holmi, his son. He died in the land of the Lombards (Italy - Trans.)” (Fittya, Upland, R 135).
“Ragnfrid ordered to install this stone for Bjorn, her son and Ketilmund... It fell in Virland (that is, in northeastern Estonia - J. X.)” (Engeby, Upland, R 137; M 91).
“Bjorn and Ingifrid erected a stone for Otrygg, their son. He was killed in Finland” (Söderby, Upland, R 143; M 76).
"...Kuru fell there in England" (Tong, Upland, R 164).
“He died in Serkland (“the country of the Saracens.” - Trans.)” (Tillinge, Upland, R 165; M 82).
“Ragnvald ordered the runes to be carved. He was the leader of the squad in Greece” (i.e., the Byzantine Varangian Guard - Y. X.) (Ed, Upland, R 174; M 118).
“These stones were set brightly colored: Hakbjarn and his brother Hrodwisl, Eystein [and] Eymund together set these stones along Hraven south of Rovstein. They reached all the way to Aifor. Vifil led [the detachment]"; i.e. Hravn died on one of the Dnieper rapids (Aifor). (Pilgaard, Gotland, R 193; M 17).
“Hrodwisl and Hrodelf, they ordered stones to be set up for three [their sons]: this one for Hrodfos. The Wallachians killed him by deception on a long trip...” (Schoenchem, Gotland, R 192; M 20, ill. 19).
The scope of the Viking campaigns is illustrated by a stone from Timans on Gotland: “Ormiga, Ulvar: Greeks, Jerusalem, Iceland, Serkland” (R 196; M 22).
Travelers often returned home with wealth. “Thorstein made [a monument] for Erinmund, his son, and acquired this farm and made [wealth] in the east in Gardah” (i.e. in Rus' - I.H.), - says, for example, the inscription on the stone from Veda in Upland (R 136; M 63).
Some Scandinavians settled in foreign lands. "Hertrud erected this stone for her son Smid, a good warrior. His brother Hallvind, he lives in Gard..." - says on a stone from Gordby on Öland (R 190; M 92).
There are 53 runestones in Upland that mention Viking expeditions: 11 of them report voyages to the West; 42 - to the East and South; 3 of them talk about the Gards, i.e. Rus'; at 18 - about Byzantium. The Gotlandic runestones show a particularly wide geographical range of travel: Iceland, Denmark, Finland, Courland, Novgorod, southern Russia, Wallachia, Byzantium, Jerusalem. One of the inscriptions in Södermanland with defective text contains the word "vinr" ( Reading the inscription presents great difficulties, and the onomastic interpretation of the word uinr is doubtful. See the opinion of A. Ruprecht in cit. work (S. 61). - Approx. translation), which is sometimes interpreted as Wendland, Slavic lands on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea. Other stones from Södermanland report on long campaigns of entire squads to Sörkland, that is, to Muslim countries.
For their military and trading campaigns, the Vikings used mainly already established, established trade routes that led to the most highly developed areas. There, first of all, they found wealth and booty, as well as the opportunity to enter the service of local princes as warriors. Some Swedish Vikings already in 838-839. reached Byzantium, having undoubtedly lived in Rus' for some time before and, judging by the title of the source, entered the service of the local prince (“Khakan of the Ros,” as the Kyiv princes were often called in eastern sources of the 9th-10th centuries). These Swedes made their way back from Byzantium through Southern and Central Europe: in 839 they appeared at the court of the Frankish emperor, presenting him with a letter from the Byzantine Caesar Theophilus. These people claimed "that their name, that is, their people, is Rhos"; according to them, they were sent to Theophilus by their king, called Khakan (Chacanus), “for the sake of friendship.” In the aforementioned letter, Theophilus asked “that the emperor would graciously give them the opportunity to return (to their country) and protection throughout his entire empire, since the paths by which they arrived to him in Constantinople were among barbarians, very inhuman and savage tribes, and he I would not want them to be in danger by returning along them. Having carefully investigated the reason for their arrival, the emperor learned “that they were from the people of the Sueons (eos gentis esse Sueonum) ...” 103 When the Frankish court found out that they were talking about. the Scandinavians who arrived with the Byzantines, he showed wariness and restraint. These were the years of the first major bloody attacks of the Normans on France, and there was a suspicion that the "Sveons" could be spies of the Vikings. From this message it also follows that in the emerging Slavic states, before. In total, in Kievan Rus, the Scandinavians entered the service of the princely squads. The Tale of Bygone Years repeatedly mentions how the Russian princes recruited Scandinavian warriors to strengthen their army, especially to fight against Byzantium. The runic inscriptions dedicated to the Normans who fell in Greece also clearly indicate this. It depended only on the balance of military power whether the Scandinavians were sometimes able to create their own temporary possessions somewhere, in alliance with the local tribal aristocracy to subjugate the local population and lay the beginnings of a state organization, or whether they had to accept already existing forms of state power 104.
Relations between the Scandinavians themselves were built in much the same way. So, in the 9th century. King Horik in Denmark fell “in the fight against the predatory attack of his relatives...” 105 . Hedeby at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. captured by the Swedish Vikings under the leadership of Olav and founded their own princely dynasty there 106.
Sea pirates did not pay much attention to the ethnicity of their victims. When, for example, the pious Ansgar sailed from Hedeby to Birka to convert the Swedes to Christianity, “he met Viking robbers” who robbed the missionary and his companions.
Adam of Bremen described the Vikings in the following way in his description of southern Sweden: “Here there is a lot of gold brought from predatory sea voyages. These sea robbers, whom they call Vikings, but we call Ascomans 107, however, give tribute to the Danish king so that they can it was possible to continue their campaigns for booty against the barbarians; they live in large numbers along the shores of this sea. But therefore it happens that they abuse the freedom granted to them not only against their enemies, but also against their own. compassion sells one another, if he is captured by them, as an unfree servant to their friend or to the barbarians." Therefore, in Scandinavia, coast guard centers appeared to protect against Viking attacks, as reported, for example, in the runic inscription from Upland (Bru, R 180). From time to time, Norman possessions 108 arose in Friesland, and then on the territory of the Frankish Empire, and from 911, under the rule of Rollo, a Norman duchy was formed in Normandy 109. Similar formations, as we learn from Rimbert’s report on Courland, could also appear in the south of the Baltic coast. They, however, were not stable and long-lasting. The Scandinavians who invaded or were recruited into service as warriors quickly assimilated into them, dissolving into the emerging class society of the Slavic countries, in Pomerania, Poland, Kievan Rus, and the land of the Obodrites. There can be no question that the Vikings were the founders of the Slavic states of Central and Eastern Europe, as was argued in the past, especially in German science, most often with straightforward nationalistic goals 110. Local feudal societies had already gone quite a long way in their own development; internal class differentiation and the process of forming statehood were in their infancy at the time of the Vikings' appearance in these lands 111 . In addition, the Varangians were few in number, not very familiar with the local system of relations and, therefore, could not become an organizing force. They became an active element only in those cases when they were included in an already existing social structure, acted within its framework, and as a result were quickly assimilated. This is what happened in Rus'. People with Scandinavian names, appearing in Byzantine and Old Russian sources as representatives of Kievan Rus, are in the service of Russian princes, and the language of treaties concluded with their participation is Greek and Slavic from the very beginning 112.
There is no indication that the Scandinavians occupied any noticeable military-political position in other Slavic states 113.
The Viking campaigns, however, had another significant result. They led to strengthening the organization of defense in the lands south of the Baltic Sea, building their own fleet, and equipping military expeditions against the Scandinavian countries. On the western borders of the Slavic lands, the Obodrite army at the end of the 10th century. moved against Hedeby and destroyed the city 114. From the second half of the 11th century. the Rügen Slavs and Pomeranians equipped large flotillas, repeatedly repelled the raids of the Danes and, in turn, attacked the Danish islands, even settling some of them 115. At this time, similar expeditions were organized from the Pomeranian coast of the Baltic against Gotland, Öland and into southern Sweden. In the second half of the 10th century. the local population restored such ancient defensive structures as in Eketorp on Öland; and here there were often settlements of Slavic military squads. The famous Swedish researcher M. Stenberger came to the conclusion that numerous Slavic elements in the materials of the later layers of Eketorp may indicate not only trade connections, but also that Öland at that time was occupied by Slavs from the southern coast of the Baltic, as reported by Saxon Grammaticus and the Danish "Knüttling Saga" 116.
These events are more or less hidden in the darkness of history, since there are no actual Scandinavian sources for this era. In general, however, the interests of the Slavic states were connected with the continent, and not with Scandinavia; they defended themselves from naval attacks by the Scandinavians, but expanded their state territories at the expense of the tribes of the interior of the mainland. The interests of Kievan Rus were directed primarily to the south, against Byzantium and against the steppe nomads. Poland in the first quarter of the 11th century. under Boleslav the Brave, it expanded into the Middle Danube and the Elbe in the Meissen region. At this time, the Swedish king Eirik entered into an alliance with the very powerful Polish king Boleslav. Boleslav gave Eirik his daughter or sister as his wife. As a result of this alliance, the Danes hostile to Eirik were subjected to a joint offensive by the Slavs and Swedes 117 . The Obodrite princes tried to capture the areas between the Elbe and Oder up to the middle reaches of the Havel. The tribes and peoples living on the southern Baltic coast did not have broad layers of society interested in overseas wars and conquest campaigns across the Baltic to the north 118 . Of course, this does not exclude the settlement of individual groups of Slavs in other areas of the Baltic, including penetration from the Oder basin to Novgorod and other places in North-Western Rus' 119.
The military-political phenomenon of the Viking campaigns, piracy and the struggle for dominion over the Baltic Sea were, as we see, an external manifestation of deeper socio-economic processes.
The importance of Viking campaigns for modern tourism is difficult to overestimate. Every year more and more people strive to come into contact with the ancient heritage. The routes of the Vikings, their settlements, ancient culture, and art attract more and more tourists.
The life and way of life of ancient Norman settlements became the subject of study and keen interest. Modern travel agencies, sensitive to the growing trend of tourists' desire to come into contact with the life of the Vikings, are developing and offering an increasing number of different tours, including Norman routes in the process of conquest, stays in Viking villages, and visits to various military and historical Viking museums.
Today, tourists are attracted not only by Egyptian beaches and Turkish service; many prefer educational tourism. Every year, tours that follow the Viking route are becoming increasingly popular. Norway, Finland and even Belarus are attractive to tourists from the perspective of studying the culture and life of an ancient civilization.
The names of some tours speak for themselves, including the names of the most ancient ancestors - conquerors. For example, “In the footsteps of the Vikings”, “On the Viking Paths”, “The Way of the Vikings”. Such names help attract tourists of different nationalities and ages.
Let's consider several of the most developed and popular tourist routes associated with the life of the ancient northern peoples - conquerors.
Norway
The “In the Footsteps of the Vikings” tour along the route: Bergen - Haugesund - Stavanger is an introduction to the ancient capitals of Norway and the Viking culture, providing the opportunity to make unforgettable journeys through the fjords.
Bergen is considered a UNESCO World Heritage city and the capital of the fjords. The medieval capital of Norway, frozen with the imprint of the Viking era - talented traders and unsurpassed sailors, warriors and romantics.
Bergen is the start of a journey to the Sognefjord, Norway's largest and deepest fjord, one of the first to be settled by the Vikings. The main attraction of Bergen is the medieval wooden Hanseatic Embankment and the Hanseatic Quarter. They represent a living memory of the most powerful and most mysterious trading alliance of the Middle Ages.
The most ancient cathedrals, picturesque panoramas of the city, located in terraces on the slopes of the mountains, will not leave anyone indifferent, immersing them completely in the Middle Ages. The historic center consists of neat, low-rise wooden houses, most of which have not been changed since the 19th century.
Fig.2.
The route involves not only viewing architectural monuments that have survived to this day, but also multiple exhibitions, museum exhibitions and panoramas dedicated to the Vikings. For example, the exhibition at the Museum of the University of Bergen is of keen interest to tourists. The story comes to life and the further it goes, the more enticing and attractive it becomes.
But Bergen is, first of all, fjords! Fjords and Vikings... In mid-summer, a Viking festival traditionally takes place on the banks of the Sognefjord, a two-hour drive from Bergen.
On the Gudvangen fjord, many people of different ages gather in Varangian clothing. They have fun, fight, train sword fighting and archery skills, and trade. At this festival, the panorama represents the Viking camp and market, the works of their folk crafts. Blacksmiths and stepladders work here, and guests are offered dishes prepared according to ancient Viking recipes.
An excursion to the Viking Festival takes tourists the whole day, but it is worth it. Of interest is a walk - a cruise along the most picturesque and ancient branches of the Sognefjord - Nærøyfjord and Aurlandsfjord.
Another point of great historical importance in the study of the Viking Age is the Norwegian Haugesund - the historical heart of Norway and nearby Avaldsnes (9 km) - the ancient capital of the Norwegian kings, the cradle of Viking statehood, surrounded by green hills and small idyllic "summer" towns.
Haugesund welcomes tourist groups with an excursion to the historical center of Nordvegen, located on a hill where the Norwegian statehood was once founded. Near this center is the Church of St. Olaf, which is almost a thousand years old. St. Olaf's Church was built on the site of an even older structure from the pagan era. Part of this structure has been preserved - it is a 7-meter stone needle stuck into the ground (and to this day no one knows how deep). The distance between the end of the needle and the wall of the temple is 7 cm. That is, the temple stands in the very center of the pagan structure.
The route includes a visit to the Viking Village, where their traditional buildings have been preserved, for example, a building whose roof is an inverted boat. The untouched pristine landscape of the area allows you to mentally transport yourself to a distant and mysterious era.
The Flaggruten route allows tourists to sail between picturesque islands with small villages, the number of inhabitants of which is sometimes no more than three families. During the excursion you can see the open North Sea, amazing colors both in sunny and cloudy weather.
Stavanger is the capital of the ancient Norwegian episcopate, the modern capital of oil. Stavanger is the beginning of tourist routes to the steepest fjord - Lysefjord and to its main attractions: the Preikestolen rock (Pulpit rock) - a stone table hovering at an altitude of 600 m above the fjord and the Shirak stone (Kjerak), sandwiched between the rocks at an altitude of 1000 m.
Tourists are interested in Hafrsfjord - the rock of swords, which consists of three huge stone swords located on the site of a naval battle in 872. This battle was key in Viking history. In the suburb of Stavanger - Solu - there is a church from 1140. This area is also famous for the fact that the famous Viking leader Erling Skjalgsson was born here.
Finland
Finland also offers several popular Viking heritage trekking destinations. Among them is the ox road HDMEEN HDRKDTIE.
The route from Turku to Hämeenlinna is one of the oldest in Finland. The appearance of the Oxen Road is associated with the heyday of the Viking center - Birka, located on an island in Lake Mälaren (Sweden).
Birka merchants carried out active trade with the Finns living on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia, who delivered valuable furs and received in return weapons, jewelry, metal and salt. In the Middle Ages, the Oxen Road connected two important fortresses - Turku and Hämeenlinna.
The tourist route Turku - Forssa - Hämeenlinna will remain in your memory for a lifetime.
A major fire in 1827 destroyed most of the city of Turku. In the surviving area of Luostarinmäki, a Crafts Museum is now open. On its territory there are about 30 operating workshops, where you can plunge into all the intricacies of rare professions.
Another museum, the Biological Museum, is a diorama museum. Its pavilions widely represent the flora and fauna of Finland, from the islands off the coast of Turku to the hills of Lapland.
Forssa is located in the very center of Southwestern Finland. Museums and exhibitions, factory stores of the world's most famous glass and chocolate manufacturers, castles and estates in the vicinity of the city are of tourist value.
The region of Hämeenlinna has been inhabited since Viking times. The fortress built at the end of the 13th century has survived to this day, and today it is a symbol of the city. Throughout its 700-year history, the fortress was used as a military bastion, a prison, and a grain storage facility. Currently, there are several museums operating on the territory of the fortress: the city historical museum, the artillery museum and the prison museum.
Belarus
And on this land the Vikings left their indelible mark. The Polotsk region, located in the very heart of the Vitebsk region, in the northern part of Belarus, sparkles with numerous lakes, delights with the beauty and grandeur of nature, and attracts with memorable and historical places.
Numerous architectural structures, monuments, museums and cathedrals for which the ancient city of Polotsk is famous are of great interest to both Belarusians and foreigners. For many centuries, the ancient land of Polotsk surprises and delights with its beauty, cleanliness, comfort and novelty.
The period of the late 20th - early 21st centuries will go down in history as a time of restoration of ancient monuments and construction of new ones. Considering the development of Polotsk as a tourist center, great attention is paid to agroecotourism in the Polotsk region. Rural estates are ready to welcome you - original and comfortable, where the hospitality of the owners and a variety of active recreation awaits you.
Literally 30 km from Polotsk is the smallest city in Belarus - Disna. The number of inhabitants in it is no more than 2000. But this city has a rich history. Disna became a full-fledged city in 1569, when it received Magdeburg Law from Grand Duke Zhigimont August. And the history of Disna began from the times of the Vikings - on augers and boats, the best traders and warriors of Europe of that time walked along the Dvina - a busy and lively route of international importance.
Cycling route “Dear Vikings”
Due to the fact that the Viking heritage is of great tourist interest, today not only tourist routes of individual countries have been developed, but also routes that run through several countries at once. For example, a cycling tourist route: St. Petersburg > Taivassalo > Kustavi > Brändö > Kumlinge > Foglo > Mariehamn > Bomarsund > Kvarnbo > Vardö > Brändö > Kustavi > St. Petersburg.
The Åland Islands are the oldest Viking settlement. The climate, convenient geographical location, and picturesque terrain were decisive for the location of the Norman tribes here. On the islands, a Viking village has been preserved in its original form; you can see a Viking castle and try some of the food.
The route and program of the tourist trip is divided into several days for the convenience of tourists.
On the first day, the route runs from St. Petersburg through Southern Finland to the Turku Archipelago.
On the second day, a cycling journey through the archipelago begins in the direction of the Åland Islands. On this day, tourists can get acquainted with the pearl of the Turku archipelago - Kustavi. The Åland Islands are the easternmost and largest community of Åland - Brändä (Brändä).
On the third day, you are invited to visit the Church of St. Jacob, the guest harbor, and enjoy the most beautiful natural landscapes - lowlands immersed in greenery, bare rocks and sea cliffs. On Kumlinge you can visit the Church of St. Anne, the walls and vault of which are decorated with beautiful frescoes in the Franciscan tradition of the 1500s. The painting decorating the church has its own distinctive character and has no analogues either in Sweden or in Finland. The first mention of this church dates back to 1484. Also on Kumlinge it is recommended to visit the sea harbor, which was once a Viking refuge.
Day four - the northern tip of the Foglo community. A fairway passes by this place, along which the Viking Line and Silja Line sea liners currently sail, and once upon a time Viking boats cruised.
On Föglö tourists are invited to visit the idyllic village of Degerby with picturesque old wooden houses and the oldest Church of Mary Magdalene.
On the fifth day, the tourist route passes through Mariehamn, a beautiful ancient region once inhabited by Vikings. It is here that you can visit Lilla Holmen Park, where peacocks roam freely. The communes of Jomala, Finström, and Sund will also attract the attention of tourists.
The main attractions of the Åland Islands are also located here - the ruins of the Russian fortress Bomarsund, the medieval castle of Kastelholm, the Vita Bjornen prison museum and the ethnographic open-air museum-reserve - Jan Karl's Estate, Bomarsund Fortress.
The cycling tourist route ends with participation in the Viking festival in Kvarnbo. Tourists who prefer family vacations come to the festival every year. In the province of Saltvik you can meet people in costumes from the mid-8th century. It is this period for the territory of modern Finland that is considered the time of the appearance of the Vikings. Their appearance in these parts was quite natural. The islands are an archipelago of the Baltic Sea at the entrance to the Gulf of Bothnia, so the Vikings moored here in their longships, conquered the land and settled for many centuries.
In order to preserve traditions and the memory of fearless warriors, a festival is organized annually in July in the market square of the tiny town of Kvarnbo. Hundreds of Vikings from Sweden, Poland, Germany, and Great Britain gather here to remember the glorious traditions of their ancestors.
Here you can meet men and women in traditional Viking costumes. This is also where their village is located - a Viking village. At the festival you can take part in dancing and Norman battles, and try yourself in mastering basic Norman crafts. Here, many artisans, right in front of tourists, make tools and artistic products using ancient methods, textiles, leather and forged products, homemade bread - all this, without a doubt, will leave positive emotions for a long time. Norman food and Viking-style drinks will pleasantly surprise you with their novelty of taste.
Iceland and southern Greenland
Iceland and southern Greenland have long been inhabited by Vikings. Today these lands have enormous recreational tourism potential.
Norman settlements united entire generations of various northern peoples: Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders, who conquered vast lands during the active Scandinavian expansion of the Middle Ages, from about 800 to 1100.
Modern historians have proven the enormous role of the Viking campaigns in the development of crafts, shipbuilding, maritime navigation and trade.
The lack of fertile land in Scandinavia, the development of iron processing, the need to develop new markets - all this played a role in the formation and development of international relations since the Middle Ages. tourist british viking
Everywhere in Iceland and South Greenland there are territories that remember ancient history - these are the settlements of the ancient Normans. It was here that the Vikings settled more than 1100 years ago. Just a few decades ago, local residents built houses here from peat blocks with roofs made from dried grass. Today, some of these huts house museums. This type of building is no longer used anywhere except Iceland.
Life for the ancient Icelanders was very difficult. The country itself is in a “hot spot” of volcanic activity. Vast areas were destroyed over many years. Ashes and streams of hot lava burned out villages and farms, layers of fertile soil. As a result of natural disasters, a huge number of people died, vast areas turned into deserts for many decades. As a result of the interaction of nature and man over the centuries, a uniquely beautiful northern landscape has been created. It is Iceland, like no other region, that attracts tourists interested in the life of the Vikings. Here you can see fjords, glaciers, and the ruins of ancient Norman settlements located in the south of Greenland.
If you cross the Erika fjord, you can land at the settlement of Kasyarsuk, which today is engaged in sheep breeding. In 985, this territory was the site of the possessions of a representative of the Norman nobility, Eric the Red.
The ruins of Eskimo dwellings also attract the attention of tourists, the inspection of which provides a brief excursion into the history of Greenland. From the ruins of Eric the Red's castle, the tourist route leads to the Tassiusak farm. Local residents believe that it is located on the “edge of the world.”
Iceland's tourist routes include trips to the fjords. For example, sliding along the surface of the fjord between icebergs from the icy cape of Greenland to the Quorok glacier is of interest. Moreover, this is an excellent opportunity for travelers to get to a special place in Greenland - the “Valley of Flowers”, teeming with Arctic flora.
Tourist routes of Iceland and Greenland are a trip along the picturesque high mountainous southern coast and former Viking trails. Majestic waterfalls, geysers and glaciers are found along the entire route.
Iceland's most visited attraction is the Blue Lagoon. This is a unique entertainment complex located near the city of Reykjavik.
The Blue Lagoon is, first of all, a lake with turquoise water. The contrast created by clear water and black stones of volcanic origin creates an indescribable visual effect. Regardless of the time of year, the water in the lake is always hot. The calling card and symbol of Iceland are the waterfalls of the southern coast - Seljalandfoss and Skogafoss. Skogafoss is located in the south of the country on the Skog River, which originates on the Eyjafjallajökull glacier. The classic scenic view of the waterfall is admirable: 25 meters wide and 60 meters of free fall. Skogafoss is constantly surrounded by a halo of mist, which causes rainbows to form around it on sunny days.
A visit to the waterfall is included in the mandatory program of all tourists traveling along the southern coast of Iceland. Tourists climb to the waterfall along the path along which Viking tribes once climbed, leading to the Fimmvürdúhauls pass.
On the other side of the Fimmvurduhauls pass is the beautiful Thorsmörk valley.
Guides tell tourists the legend associated with Skogafoss. Allegedly, in Viking times, a treasure chest was hidden behind the waterfall, of which only a ring has survived to this day. Today, by the way, it can be seen in the local museum, located in the village of the same name near the waterfall.
In the village of Skogafoss you can get acquainted with a unique collection of turf farms, presented in their original form.
A trip to the Myrdalsjökull glacier through the village of Vik Myrdal, located on the southern coast of Iceland, impresses tourists with the absence of a harbor. But this does not prevent the villagers from being excellent sailors.
A distinctive feature of the settlement is the southern sandy beach of an unusual anthracite color. In 1991, the Americans declared that beach one of the ten most beautiful in the world. Large colonies of Arctic birds live here.
The highlight of Vik are the black basalt pillars of Reynisdrangar, rising straight out of the Atlantic Ocean. They are also considered a symbol of Iceland. Local folklore says that the basalt columns are the remains of trolls who were shipwrecked and petrified at dawn.
Another local attraction is the white church, with an elegant bell tower, standing on a hill.
The long coastline and mountain passes offer a contrasting richness of landscapes. Above the village rises the Myrdalsökull glacier, with an area of about 700 square kilometers, under the icy cover of which lies the Katla volcano, which ranks fourth in the rank of volcanoes. The last eruption of Mount Katla was recorded in 1918.
There are many interesting places in the vicinity of Vik. On the southern slopes of Reynisfjall there are beautiful basalt rocks, lava formations and many caves.
Iceland has a huge variety of wild, beautiful landscapes, and tourist routes run through the most beautiful of them.
The Tjorsardalur Valley has always amazed travelers with its rich colors. Here, birch groves quickly give way to lava fields and waterfalls. It offers stunning views of the active, mighty Hekla volcano, located in southern Iceland. Around the volcano you can see traces of its previous eruptions, in the form of frozen lava. History knows evidence of twenty such eruptions. The height of the volcano is 1491 m. The last eruption was in 1947-1948.
Not far away is the world-famous Valley of Geysers, where hot water is ejected from the bowels of the earth every few minutes to a height of 30 meters. The water from these sources is used by local residents to heat their homes and create swimming pools that are popular among tourists.
Thingvellir National Park, included in the UNESCO list, features picturesque fjords and waterfalls. It is a protected area of the island, closely connected with the history of the country, and therefore the history of the Viking Age. It was here that the oldest Viking parliament in Europe, the Althing, was formed.
The route of the tourist excursion passes through the Kaldidalur mountain range - “Cold Valley”.
Speaking about the significance of the Viking campaigns for the development of modern tourism, we can conclude that today if we did not have such an international history of brilliant victories and Norman conquests, there would not be many tourist areas and routes that attract tourists seeking to come into contact with the ancient era.
Without the Vikings, their culture and traditions, we would never have known many works of art, rare crafts and literary masterpieces.
IX - mid-XI century - in the history of Northern Europe “The Viking Age”
Etymology.
Geographically, this is modern Norway, Sweden, but if we talk about Scandinavia as a cultural core, then: Norway + Sweden + Denmark.
Geography of hikes: the territory of Finland, the northern Baltic States, Gotland Island, Iceland, Greenland, the Aland Islands.
This was a period of widespread expansion, in which scattered military raids, and later organized campaigns, were intertwined with the development of international trade.
The Scandinavians are not part of the Roman world, but had mediocre contacts:
During the VPN era, contacts intensified, but this did not lead to anything.
The first mention is the poem “Widsid” (Wikipedia reference - “wide-travelling” or “distant path” is an Old English poem, presumably written down in the 9th century. The work consists of 144 lines and is based on the oral tradition of ancient Germanic tales)
Profound shifts in the material and spiritual culture of the Scandinavian peoples. - internal colonization - partial settlement of the forest zone of the Scandinavian Peninsula;
Fast maneuverable ships - drakkars (dragon ship);
Important centers of international trade:
Social stereotypes:
Predatory raids;
Trade trips;
Colonization of new lands.
Viking expansion:
787 (789) – the first mention of an attack on English territory,
793 – attack on the monastery of St. Cuthbert in the northeast of the island of Lindisfarne. These sudden appearances of armed pagans (England, Ireland, the Frankish kingdom, Germany, the south of the Baltic Sea) brought death, plunder and enslavement of the local inhabitants taken by surprise.
Over time, the rulers of countries that were attacked by the Normans were able to organize defense. Repelled by the Franks “senizo”, Godfred defended Jutland from the south - a chain of fortifications - the “Danish Wall” - the man-made border of Denmark from the Carolingians. 810 – Gottfried's campaign, the first military event in Europe (occupied the Northern territories of Charlemagne's empire, although he created a marburg for defense)
820 + Friesland. The Danes plundered and brought under their rule vast territories in different parts of Europe (the islands of the North Atlantic).
874 -930 - era of settlement of the earth - Iceland, the first settler Ingolf Arnarson, immigrants from the British Isles also arrived in Iceland
there is intensive settlement -> by the middle of the 11th century - deforestation.
9th century - plundered Northern Europe, France: Hamburg, Dorestadt, Rouen, Paris. London - towards the end of the 9th century, Northern and Eastern England.
886 – Alfred the Great concluded a truce. In the territory of East Anglia - the “area of Danish law” - “Danlow” - the settlers introduced their own social and legal orders.
The turn of the 9th and 10th centuries - part of the Danish army that fought in Northern France settled in the lower reaches of the Seine. (Hrolf the Pedestrian swore allegiance to Louis the Stutterer and was baptized).
911 - Rollon received this part for management (fief) from the French king on the condition of protecting the country from the Normans - the Duchy of Normandy. Independence from the French king and Danish kings.
The Normans intensively mixed with the local population - descendants of the Celts, Franks, and Romans.
Since the 90s of the 9th century, Europeans learned to repel the Danes for the following reasons:
We observed and studied their “scorched earth” tactics: bases at the mouths of rivers, too many people did not participate in the campaigns (10 ships and 400 people);
Raid energy surge + resource depletion ended;
A system of repelling raids was organized (fortresses, bridges, blocking river mouths).
826 - the Danish king Harald Klak was baptized (1 baptism) with his family and squad + supported Louis the Pious in the struggle for the throne - Harald was granted fief - region. Rüstingen
930 - establishment of a common council for Iceland - Althing (+ judicial, legislative assembly + center of cultural life and a place of communication for Icelanders)
80s of the 19th century - the Norwegians discovered Greenland, and soon they discovered islands off the coast of North America, called:
Helyuland (flat stones)
Markland (forest country)
Wieland (wild grapes)
The expedition was led by Leiv the Happy (Lucky), described in the Sagas “About the Greenlanders” and “About Eric the Red”. Based on archaeological data, scientists are inclined to believe that the Scandinavians discovered Newfoundland, since traces of “long houses” were found there.
Viking campaigns of the first half of the 11th century.
The greatest achievement at the end of the 10th century - the beginning of the 11th century was the subjugation of England.
At first, Danish and Norwegian leaders entered the service of the kings of England, receiving salaries and rewards from them - this turned into an indemnity levied on the population. 1016 - the Danish leader Knut took the English throne - after the death of his brother - he and the king of Denmark.
1028 – + power over Norway
Power of Knut the Great (1016 - 1035): after the death of his son Hardaknut in 1042. – loss of the English and Norwegian sides.
The last king was the Norwegian Harald Hardrad (1046 - 1066):
The nature of the Viking campaigns.
Like the Germans who attacked Rome, the Scandinavians in the 9th and 11th centuries, who survived the collapse
tribal system and in need of land and spoils, invaded Europe, changing its social, political and demographic structure. Basically, the Vikings and their descendants adopted the social structure that had already developed in the occupied territories, modifying it - this experience was adopted to their homeland
The originality of the genesis of feudalism. Early feudal period until the 12th and 13th centuries.
In Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, remnants of tribal relations and patriarchal slavery persisted for a long time, since they were outside the sphere of ancient society.
Features of feudalism:
Natural-geographical conditions:
Socio-political system
1. Free - bonds - the bulk of the population. These are farmers, pastoralists,
hunters, fishermen who had their own farms and lived in isolated farmsteads (Norway, Sweden, Iceland), or small villages (Denmark, most of Sweden)
2. Land redistribution was practiced in Danish communities. A large family is the owner of the land - inalienable arable land. The relatives retained the right of advantage for 60 years. Acquisition and redemption of odal. Subsequently, it was assigned to the family.
3. Almennings - forests, meadows, other lands - common possessions.
4. Tings – local government bodies. Regional and district bond meetings:
5. Territorial nobility: chief, king.
6. Military nobility: jarl (military leader), hedsir (head of a military detachment).
7. Slaves and freedmen
Strengthening the social influence of the nobility. The source of power is herds of livestock, trade and wealth. As the power of the nobility grew and the subjugation of some of the free was a prerequisite for the formation of a state.
The first Scandinavian kings - kings - leaders of tribes and tribal unions, these are the emerging foundations of political unification.
Denmark - Harald Bluetooth (950-986) - strengthened royal power.
Norway - the end of the 9th century, the subordination of many districts - King Harald Fairhair.
The beginning of the 11th century - the unification of Norway, but the power of the king did not become strong. King Olav Haraldsson was expelled from the country and died in 1030 - included in the Danish Canute. Sweden - the northern kingdom - the region of the Svei with the center in Uppsala and Nashne - the region of the Etov tribes.
North and south = Olaf Skönkanung - beginning of the 11th century.
In seeking to strengthen its position, the royal power sought to rely on the Christian church, but Christianization encountered stubborn opposition from the peasants and tribal nobility, who linked the preservation of paganism with the defense of their independence. Thus, the struggle of royal power is the fight against paganism. The end of the 10th century, the beginning of the 11th century, the strengthening of the Christian Church. As feudalization grew, the influence of the church grew.
1103 - pan-Scandinavian archbishopric of Lund (generous awards, special jurisdiction).
Consequences of the Viking Age.
For Europe:
For Scandinavia:
“Not peace, but a sword” - for them Christ is a king; his torment was incomprehensible to them. The first pan-Scandinavian saints - kings: Olaf, Knut, Eric
2)))) 9th-11th centuries entered the history of all of Europe under the name “Viking Age”. This was a period of their wide expansion, in which scattered military raids, and later full-scale actions led by Scandinavian kings, were intertwined with the development of international trade, with colonization and the discovery of new lands. In Scandinavia itself, this period was marked by an effort to disintegrate tribal relations and the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of the first state formations.
In the 9th century, profound shifts in material and spiritual culture began in Scandinavia. Internal colonization is developing - the development and settlement of part of the forest zones of Sk. peninsula. New types of fast and maneuverable ships are emerging, on which the Vikings sailed the North and Baltic seas, ascended European rivers - along the Seine to Paris and along the Dnieper waterway to Constantinople.
Viking Campaigns: In general, the etymology of the word “Viking” is not fully understood; Perhaps the word comes from the term “vik” - bay, port. In the West they are known as the Normans (“northern people”), and in Rus' – the Varangians.
The first mention of a Viking attack dates back to 787. In 793, a Viking detachment attacked a monastery on the north coast of England, plundered and burned it. Soon such predatory attacks became a disaster for the coastal regions of England, Ireland, the Frankish Kingdom, Germany, and the southern coast of the Baltic Sea.
Over time, the rulers of countries that were attacked by the Normans were able to organize protection against them, which led to serious conflicts. For example, the Danish king Godfred began building a defensive rampart that protected Jutlanlia from the south after he encountered serious resistance from the Franks. The strip of fortifications was called Danevrike (Danish Wall), its construction ended in the 10th century.
The Danish conquerors managed to plunder and subjugate vast territories in different parts of Europe. They moved to the North Atlantic islands - Farrer, Shetland, Orkney and Hebrides. After 870, immigrants from Norway discovered and began to populate Iceland. At 9 – start. 10 The Norwegians and Danes conquered large parts of Ireland, establishing their own kingdoms. In the 9th century The Swedes, who had already settled on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, paved the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which led them to Byzantium and the Arab Caliphate. Expansion on the territory of Rus' was not only military, but also commercial in nature.
Throughout the 9th century. Danish Vikings plundered Northern Germany, France, and England. By the end of the century, a significant part of N and B England was conquered by them, Scandinavian warriors began to settle on these lands, dividing the lands among themselves.
At the same time, the Vikings appeared in the Western Mediterranean, plundering the cities of Spain, South France and Italy.
The formation of the empire of Cnut the Great should also be highlighted. In 1016, the Danish king Cnut took the English throne. The Danes had previously served the kings of England and collected huge taxes from the local population. In 1028 he also captured Norway. But Knut's empire did not last long. After his death in 1035, his sons lost both the English and Norwegian thrones.
The originality of the genesis of feudalism in Scandinavia: In Denmark, Sweden and Norway, which developed outside the sphere of the ancient world and experienced the influence of feudal societies relatively late, vestiges of tribal relations and patriarchal slavery persisted for a long time. The early feudal period lasted here until the 13th century. In Skan, the personal dependence of peasants and corvée did not receive much development, and Norway did not know them at all; the rights of feudal lords were very limited, and vassal relations were less developed than in Western Europe.
As for the economy, the Scandinavians are known as skilled shipbuilders. Due to the harsh climate, agriculture was developed only in the south of the peninsula, and cattle breeding, hunting and fishing were predominant.
Socio-political system: The bulk of the population were free people - bonds. These were farmers, cattle breeders, hunters and fishermen who had their own farms and lived separately in farmsteads.
The formation of class society in Skan proceeded slowly. Self-government bodies—things and district meetings of bonds—played a major role. Courts were held on them, disputes were resolved, and various deals were concluded.
The social influence of the nobility gradually increased. The source of its power was, first of all, herds of livestock, trade and especially wealth captured in sea campaigns and Viking raids in the 9th – 11th centuries. Where the clan nobility had land holdings, it exploited slaves from captives, partly from among the impoverished free people, who were allocated plots of land.
With the growth of the nobility, on the one hand, and the subordination of the free, on the other hand, the prerequisites arose for the formation of a state. The Viking campaigns accelerated this process.
The first Scandinavian kings, who emerged from the clan nobility, remained for a long time largely the leaders of tribes and tribal alliances. Nevertheless, the foundations of political unification were gradually laid. In Denmark, this process began in the 8th century, and ended in the 10th, when Harald Bluetooth significantly strengthened royal power. King Harald Fairhair in the 9th century. managed to subjugate many of the tribal districts of Norway, and at the beginning of the 11th the unification was completed.
In seeking to strengthen power, the royal power sought to rely on the church, but Christianization encountered resistance. Therefore, the fight against church authority often took the form of defending paganism from Christianity. Chr. The church strengthened in Skan only in the 11th century, but paganism was broken in the 12th century. Nevertheless, the role of the church grew, and around 1103 a pan-Scandinavian archbishopric was established in Lund.
